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American Journal of Epidemiology Advance Access originally published online on December 12, 2007
American Journal of Epidemiology 2008 167(2):188-192; doi:10.1093/aje/kwm309
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American Journal of Epidemiology © The Author 2007. Published by the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oxfordjournals.org.

ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS

Energy Intake at Breakfast and Weight Change: Prospective Study of 6,764 Middle-aged Men and Women

Lisa R. Purslow1,2, Manjinder S. Sandhu1,3, Nita Forouhi1, Elizabeth H. Young1,3, Robert N. Luben3, Ailsa A. Welch3, Kay-Tee Khaw3, Sheila A. Bingham4,5 and Nicholas J. Wareham1

1 MRC Epidemiology Unit, Institute of Medical Science, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
2 Cancer Research UK Health Behaviour Unit, University College London, London, United Kingdom
3 Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
4 MRC Dunn Human Nutrition Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
5 MRC Centre for Nutrition in Cancer Epidemiology Prevention and Survival, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Correspondence to Dr. Nicholas Wareham, MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB1 9NL, United Kingdom (e-mail: nick.wareham{at}mrc-epid.cam.ac.uk).

Received for publication July 3, 2007. Accepted for publication September 21, 2007.


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 References
 
To investigate the association between percentage of total daily energy intake consumed at breakfast and weight change in middle-aged men and women, the authors analyzed data from a prospective population-based cohort study from Norfolk, United Kingdom. Participants were 6,764 men and women aged 40–75 years at baseline (1993–1997). Participants completed a 7-day food diary at baseline, and objective measurements of height and weight were carried out at baseline and follow-up (1998–2000). Mean baseline body mass index (weight (kg)/height (m)2) was lowest among persons in the highest quintile of percentage of daily energy consumed at breakfast (mean values were 26.0 in the highest quintile and 26.3 in the lowest quintile), despite higher daily total energy intake in this group. Although all participants gained weight, increased percentage of daily energy consumed at breakfast was associated with relatively lower weight gain (adjusted β coefficient = –0.021, 95% confidence interval: –0.035, –0.007; p = 0.004). The association between percentage of daily energy intake consumed at breakfast and weight gain was independent of age, sex, smoking, total energy intake, macronutrient intake, social class, and physical activity. Redistribution of daily energy intake, so that more energy is consumed at breakfast and less energy is consumed later in the day, may help to reduce weight gain in middle-aged adults.

body mass index; diet; feeding behavior; food; obesity; prospective studies; weight gain

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; %TEI, percentage of total energy intake


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 References
 
The proportion of people regularly consuming breakfast is in decline (1, 2), and skipping breakfast is associated with other lifestyle choices such as low levels of physical activity and high levels of soft-drink consumption (2). Obesity and weight gain are associated with low socioeconomic position (3), and skipping breakfast is more common among children and adolescents of low socioeconomic position (2). Compared with lean women, obese women consume fewer calories in the morning (4). By contrast, regular breakfast consumption is associated with successful maintenance of weight loss (5), suggesting that consuming fewer calories in the morning or skipping breakfast could contribute to the development of obesity.

A cross-sectional association between skipping breakfast and obesity has been shown in adults (6, 7). Regular consumption of breakfast cereal is associated with lower body mass index (BMI) in adults (8) and children (9), and greater energy intake at breakfast is associated with lower BMI in adolescents (10). A large prospective study conducted in men showed a decreased risk of weight gain among regular consumers of breakfast cereal (11). However, this study did not assess the time of day when cereal was eaten and therefore did not provide direct evidence of an association between breakfast consumption and weight change. Currently, the prospective association between energy intake at breakfast and weight change in adults is not known. Therefore, we investigated the association between percentage of total daily energy intake consumed at breakfast and weight change in a prospective population-based cohort study of middle-aged men and women.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 References
 
We used data from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition–Norfolk cohort. The study was approved by the Norfolk, United Kingdom, Health District Ethics Committee, and full details on participant recruitment and study procedures have been published previously (12). Briefly, recruitment started in March 1993 and was completed by the end of 1997, when 25,631 persons attended a baseline health check. Between 1998 and 2000, 15,028 persons aged 40–75 years at baseline completed a follow-up health check. Of these participants, 13,705 (91 percent) had a measure of weight change and did not report a stroke, cancer, or heart attack at baseline. Some participants (n = 6,941) were excluded because they did not have complete food diary data. This exclusion left 6,764 participants for analysis. Compared with persons with no diary information, there was no difference in subsequent weight change among participants included in the analysis (p > 0.05), indicating that our analytical cohort was unlikely to be a biased subset of the eligible cohort.

At both health checks, height and weight were measured (13), and BMI was calculated as weight (kg)/height2 (m2). All participants completed a health and lifestyle questionnaire. Smoking was coded as never, former, or current smoking. Information on occupational and leisure-time physical activity was assembled into a previously validated four-point physical activity index (correlation with objectively measured daytime energy expenditure: r = 0.28, p < 0.001) (14). The Registrar General's occupational classification was used to assess social class, which was coded as I (professional), II (intermediate), IIIa (skilled nonmanual), IIIb (skilled manual), IV (semiskilled), or V (unskilled) (15, 16).

At baseline, dietary intake was assessed by means of a validated 7-day food diary (correlation coefficients for comparison with 16-day weighed records: energy, 0.59; fat, 0.63; protein, 0.66; carbohydrate, 0.71) (17). Portion sizes were indicated using convenient household measures such as tablespoons, bowls, glasses, numbers, units, slices, or packet weights or by reference to 17 sets of color photographs (18). Data were entered using the in-house data entry program DINER (19). Total daily energy intake and energy intake during specified periods (prebreakfast, breakfast, midmorning, lunch, midafternoon, evening, and late evening) were calculated by dividing the total energy intake in each time period by the number of days included in the diet diary. The mean percentage of total daily energy intake consumed in each period was calculated by dividing the energy consumed in each period by the total daily energy intake. Energy intakes before breakfast and at breakfast were combined to obtain total breakfast energy intake. Energy intakes in the evening and late evening were combined to obtain total evening energy intake. Energy intakes midmorning and midafternoon were combined to obtain between-meal energy intake.

All analyses were carried out using STATA, version 8 (Stata Corporation, College Station, Texas). All primary analyses were conducted using percentage of total energy intake (%TEI) consumed at breakfast as a continuous variable. However, for ease of data interpretation, we have presented some information by quintile of %TEI at breakfast. We used linear regression to assess the relation between %TEI at breakfast, baseline BMI, and weight change over the course of follow-up. We examined whether the association between %TEI at breakfast and BMI was confounded by age, sex, baseline BMI, smoking, physical activity level, fruit and vegetable intake, plasma vitamin C level, follow-up time, and social class. We have previously shown that plasma vitamin C levels in this cohort are positively correlated with fruit and vegetable intake (20); therefore, we used this biomarker as an additional measure that was indicative of fruit and vegetable intake, since skipping breakfast has been previously associated with low fruit and vegetable intake (2). In an exploratory analysis, we also added daily fat, carbohydrate, and protein intake, alcohol consumption, meal frequency, and %TEI between meals as potentially confounding variables to this multivariable model.

In additional exploratory analyses, we assessed whether any association between %TEI at breakfast and baseline BMI was modified by sex (7) or social class (2). For the prospective analysis, we examined whether sex, social class, or BMI at baseline modified any association between %TEI at breakfast and subsequent weight change. Finally, we assessed whether any associations between %TEI at breakfast, BMI, and weight change were mediated by %TEI consumed in the evening.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 References
 
Complete data were available for 6,764 persons. %TEI consumed at breakfast ranged from 0 percent to 50 percent. Compared with the lowest quintile of %TEI at breakfast, mean BMI was lowest in persons in the highest quintile of %TEI at breakfast (p for trend = 0.018) (table 1). Total energy intake was greatest in the highest quintile of %TEI at breakfast (p for trend < 0.001). Persons in the highest quintile of %TEI at breakfast were older (p for trend < 0.001) and of higher socioeconomic position ({chi}2 test for heterogeneity: p < 0.001). We found no evidence for a statistically significant interaction with sex or social class (for both interactions, p > 0.1) in the relation between %TEI at breakfast and BMI at baseline (data not shown).


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  		TABLE 1. Characteristics of participants by quintile of percentage of total daily energy intake consumed at breakfast (n = 6,764), European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition–Norfolk, 1993–1997

 
On average, all participants gained weight over the follow-up period (table 1). However, we found that weight change was inversely associated with %TEI consumed at breakfast. In the unadjusted model, a 1-percentage-point increase in %TEI at breakfast was associated with a relatively lower weight gain of –0.032 kg (table 2). Thus, persons who consumed a greater proportion of their daily calories at breakfast gained relatively less weight. This inverse association remained statistically significant after adjustment for age and sex and other confounders (table 2). In an exploratory analysis, further adjustment for daily fat, carbohydrate, and protein intake, alcohol consumption, meal frequency, and energy intake between meals did not materially alter this association (data not shown). Results stratified by sex, social class, and baseline BMI were similar to the unstratified results presented (for interactions, all p's > 0.4).


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  		TABLE 2. Association between percentage of total daily energy intake consumed at breakfast (per 1-percentage-point increase) and weight gain over the course of follow-up (n = 6,764), European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition–Norfolk, 1993–1997

 
%TEI consumed at breakfast was inversely correlated with %TEI consumed in the evening (r = –0.39; p < 0.001). However, although additional adjustment for %TEI in the evening marginally attenuated the association between %TEI at breakfast and weight change (β = –0.017, 95 percent confidence interval: –0.032, –0.001; p = 0.033), it did not explain this association.


   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
References
 
In our study, all participants gained weight over the follow-up period, on average; however, our data indicate that consuming a higher proportion of total daily calories at breakfast is associated with relatively lower weight gain in middle age. This association was independent of total daily energy intake and did not appear to be mediated by a corresponding reduction in %TEI consumed in the evening. However, the association could be accounted for by other, unknown confounders.

Although total energy intake was greatest in persons in the highest quintile of %TEI at breakfast, BMI and weight change were lowest in this group. Previous cross-sectional studies have shown similar associations among persons who regularly ate breakfast as compared with those who did not (2, 6, 7, 21). However, to our knowledge, no other epidemiologic studies have specifically assessed the prospective relation between %TEI at breakfast and weight gain. Thus, we cannot make any direct comparison of our results with those of other studies. Nevertheless, one prospective study has shown a reduced risk of weight gain among regular consumers of breakfast cereal (11). Specifically, that study showed that persons consuming whole-grain cereals at least once a day gained less weight than those who never consumed whole-grain cereals (mean weight gain of 2.28 kg (standard error, 0.06) as compared with 1.87 kg (standard error, 0.12); p for trend < 0.05). Studies have also shown that energy intake in the evening was positively related to change in BMI in adults (10) and adolescents (22). In our study, although %TEI at breakfast was inversely correlated with %TEI in the evening, our results indicated that the association between %TEI at breakfast and weight change was not explained by a corresponding decrease in %TEI in the evening.

Skipping breakfast is associated with low levels of physical activity and fruit and vegetable intake and increased levels of dietary fat and soft-drink consumption (2, 6, 21). These correlated factors, which are also risk factors for obesity, might explain the association between increased energy intake at breakfast and weight change. However, statistical adjustment for physical activity, fruit and vegetable intake, plasma vitamin C level, fat, carbohydrate, and protein intakes, and social class did not materially alter the magnitude or direction of the association between %TEI at breakfast and weight change. This observation suggests that these factors are unlikely to confound the association, yet because of random measurement error, we cannot exclude the possibility of residual confounding by these or other unmeasured variables. Examination of the relation between energy intake at breakfast and weight change in other populations will help to clarify the broader relevance of this association.

Two intervention studies have shown that weight loss was greater when a single meal was ingested at breakfast than when an equivalent meal was consumed in the evening (23, 24). Similarly, a 6-week weight loss study also showed greater weight loss with large morning meals as compared with large evening meals (25). A potential mechanism underlying the inverse association between %TEI at breakfast and weight change is the lipogenic action of insulin. Increased blood levels of insulin will promote lipogenesis, and studies have shown that breakfast-skipping and prolonged fasting lead to an elevated insulin response following a test meal (26–28). Relatively higher circulating levels of insulin in response to food consumption may increase lipogenesis. Therefore, an increased insulin response following prolonged fasting, such as skipping of breakfast, may lead to increased fat storage and weight gain.

Major strengths of our study include the longitudinal design, the repeated objective measures of weight, and the use of prospective 7-day food diaries. As a limitation, all dietary recording methods, including diet diaries, are associated with underreporting of actual intake, and greater underreporting of dietary intake by obese persons is well established (29). However, in the context of systematic error, differential reporting of dietary intakes by meal time is unlikely; therefore, we would not expect the association between %TEI at breakfast and weight change to be biased.

In conclusion, in this prospective study of 6,764 middle-aged men and women, we found an inverse association between %TEI consumed at breakfast and weight change. From a public health perspective, redistribution of daily energy intake, so that a larger percentage is consumed at breakfast and a lower percentage is consumed over the rest of the day, may help to reduce weight gain in middle-aged adults.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)–Norfolk is supported by research program funding from Cancer Research UK and the Medical Research Council, with additional grants from the Stroke Association, the British Heart Foundation, the United Kingdom Department of Health, the Europe Against Cancer Program Commission of the European Union, the Food Standards Agency, and the Wellcome Trust.

Drs. Sheila Bingham, Nicholas Wareham, and Kay-Tee Khaw are EPIC-Norfolk Principal Investigators.

Conflict of interest: none declared.


   References
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 References
 

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